11.2 Christianity after the death of the early Apostles

11.2 Christianity after the death of the early Apostles Criticism of the Roman Church’s secularisation, as well as the humanists’ demand for a return to its sources and a resulting devotion to the Bible, were significant precursors to the Reformation. Luther developed his theology based on his interpretation of the Bible. At its core is the doctrine of justification by faith, with its fundamental notion that God does not provide rewards on the basis of good works, but rather grants His grace to the sinner who believes in Jesus Christ. Luther came into conflict with the Roman Church because he rejected the Pope’s authority and cast doubt on the infallibility of the councils. He argued that the Bible, with its witness to Jesus Christ, should be the sole basis for doctrine. Luther translated the Bible into the German language and thereby made it accessible to the people. The rapid spread of the Reformation in Germany is not only to be attri- buted to Luther and other reformers, but also to the political and economic interests of many princes. Outside of Germany, the Reformation gained a foothold primarily in northern Europe, in the Netherlands, in France, and in Italy. The reformer (1484–1531) was active in Zurich, and John Calvin Ulrich Zwingli (1509–1564) who started an independent reform movement, was active in Geneva. The ideals of the Reformation also took on political dimensions. Both sovereigns and peasants adopted it—for various motives—in order to achieve social and political goals. The Anglican Church came into being independently in England in 1534. As a reaction to the Reformation, the Council of Trent (from 1545) in- spired a period of reflection and renewal in the Roman Catholic Church and prepared the way for the Counter-Reformation. 11.2.5 Catholicism and Protestantism in upheaval The Reformation led to a counter movement (the Counter-Reformation) as European Catholicism strove for spiritual renewal and reinforced the power 379 11 From the history of Christianity of the papacy. The Popes endeavoured to regain Protestant territories for Catholicism. In the course of these conflicts, the Thirty Years’ War broke out in Europe (1618–1648) which served, among other things, to strengthen the institution of the state church. The sovereign determined the religion of his subjects. In the eighteenth century, a rationalistic Christianity—a kind of Christian- ity which adopted the insights of the sciences of the time—began to merge with the philosophical concepts of the Enlightenment. Denominational con- flicts and philosophical-theological disputes brought Protestantism into a state of crisis. As a reaction, Pietism gained more and more influence. The hallmarks of Pietism include interest in intensive Bible study, social and missionary engagement, and a strong focus on Jesus Christ’s activity as Redeemer. Emphasis on the importance of emotions for Christian life and faith found a certain continuity in the revivalist movements. These evangelical movements, which originated in the eighteenth century, particularly in England and the USA, sought to distinguish themselves from “cultural Chris- tianity” and return to a living faith. In the nineteenth century, the Innere Mission (Inner or Home Mission) and the Protestant Free Churches—churches that were independent of the state—came into being in Germany and began to spread from there. This movement was not only aimed at winning non-Christians in foreign coun- tries for Christianity, but also at those in Germany who had, through poverty and ignorance, become alienated from the faith. The further propagation of Christianity in non-European countries, particularly in Africa, received significant momentum from missionary societies. A kind of devotion oriented to spiritual experience can also be observed in eighteenth and nineteenth century Catholicism. It is in this context that the ideological conflicts with the French revolu- tion, the attendant circumstances of the dawning industrial age, as well as the scientific and rationalistic thinking which sought to explain the world without reference to traditional faith, should be understood. 380